Introduction

There has been a resurgence in the study of and interest in Thomas Aquinas in recent years, especially for those who call themselves Reformed and Orthodox. Aquinas has almost exclusively been a leading theologian for Roman Catholicism, but why the renewed interest in Thomas, and what exactly did he think and teach? Aquinas represents much of what the Middle Ages stood for and taught. It was an odd period between the Early Church and the Protestant Reformation, and Thomistic thought reflects the times.

What has been considered theology in the Middle Ages is now most often categorized as philosophy, and Thomas’s writings are saturated with Aristotle’s and some of Plato’s works. To better understand Aquinas and his theology, it seems prudent to run it through a biblical lens to examine how far he took his “Natural Theology”[1] and whether natural theology and reason[2] are adequate for salvation.

This paper seeks to summarize and synthesize some of the methodologies of Thomas Aquinas as it relates to epistemology and his theology. Admittedly, that is a monumental task given the volumes of Thomas’s writings and thoughts, so the focus here will be threefold. The first is an understanding of natural reasoning, then knowledge of God, and lastly, apologetics. Having a proper anthropology and a theological framework is crucial to understanding mankind and his need for God. In the end, the only real difference the most sophisticated arguments make are those which lead to true salvation founded on the finished work of the Lord Jesus Christ. The primary questions that must flow out of “natural reason” concerns the true knowledge of the one true God and whether salvation is possible and available through these natural processes. If one is to arrive at an informed position that understands Thomistic thought and honors God through His revelation, there are serious questions to ask and answer.

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[1] Brian Davies and Eleonore Stump, The Oxford Handbook of Aquinas (Oxford etc.: Oxford University Press, 2016), 4-5. “As a part of philosophy, natural theology must be based entirely on ‘principles known by the natural light of intellect,’ principles of the sort that underlie Aristotle’s metaphysics, which Aristotle himself thought of as a culminating in theology (see Aquinas’s interpretation of that thought in the prooemium to his Sententia super Metaphysiciam [Commentary on Aristotle’s Metaphysics]}.

[2] Natural theology and natural reason go hand in hand, as one bases theology on the ability to reason through natural processes, outside of regeneration, which is contradictory to the Scriptures.

Background

Who is Thomas Aquinas, and why has his teaching and thought process remained relevant today? The Medieval Church was chaotic in its belief system as the period moved from the Early Church. Paganism, Gnosticism, and other strange thought had taken the church away from the purity of the Scriptures. Thomas was born around 1225 in or near Aquino, Italy. As a teenager, he came from a large family, went to Naples for schooling, and became involved with the newly formed Dominicans. Thomas was influenced early on and cemented a philosophical approach under a Dominican mentor named Albert the Great.

Augustine and other church fathers, such as Gregory the Great, also influenced Thomas. Thomas’s influences by these teachers were influential in his life, but one stands out as having the most profound impact, and that was Aristotle, and as K. Scott Oliphint remarks, “[F]rom which the theological notion of principium is derived.”[1] Thomas’s starting foundational structure begins with existence and knowledge, and within this framework, the primary interest is theological. Thomas built his theological structure within Aristotle’s philosophy which ultimately caused him to misunderstand the Scriptures.

James Doig writes,

The dependence of Aquinas’s theology on the philosophy of Aristotle appears then in two forms. One is the evident application of Aristotle’s doctrines or concepts; the other, not as noticeable, is the application of the method Aquinas found proper to Aristotle’s metaphysicians…One of Aquinas’s strongest convictions concerned the impossibility that error can arise from the correct use of the human cognitive abilities given by God. That the human mind is made for the world is surely everywhere evident in Aquinas’s works.[2]

Thomas was a literary giant over his years, and it is estimated that his written works are over eight million words, most of which have survived,[3] and been reproduced into many languages. The vast library of Aquinas’s works has given the modern theologian and philosopher tremendous material to sift through and analyze. Thomas’s influences require understanding, and Oliphint provides insight:

Thomas’s comments on the Sentences included around 2,000 quotes from Aristotle, 1,500 from Augustine, 500 from Denis the Areopagite, 280 from Gregory the Great, and 240 from John Damascene, as well as others. Clearly the influence of Aristotle on Thomas’s reading of church history was substantial and significant by this point in his life.[4]                  

Just how profound Aristotle’s influence on Thomas is visible through the volumes of expositions respecting Aristotle’s works. James Doig states, “Aquinas’s relation to Aristotle was that of a theologian to a source of philosophical doctrines and concepts with whose aid he formulated his theological synthesis of Christian revelation.”[5] In some sense, theology or biblical revelation is not enough. Aquinas offers a greater understanding or more profound knowledge, and according to Doig, “as well as recognition of the value of that thought for theology.”[6] It is essential to unfold how Aquinas had his shaping formed by Aristotle, but more importantly, how this contorted his biblical worldview. Jesus said, “A disciple is not above his teacher, but everyone when he is fully trained will be like his teacher” (Luke 6:40). Aquinas held Augustine in high regard as an authority where theology was concerned, but where he differed from Augustine as to the light of illumination needed to come to true knowledge. With that in mind, evaluating the primary areas that form the foundation of Thomistic thought is essential. Where is the dividing line between natural revelation and special revelation? Is it possible for the natural man to come to Christ through a natural process? Aquinas believed this was possible, and an appropriate starting point is in Summa Theologica,[7] arguably his most well-known work and the work that would take him right up to his death. It is not his only work; as stated previously, he wrote extensively and abundantly.

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[1] 1. K. Scott Oliphint and Haykin Michael A G., Thomas Aquinas (Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing, 2017), 2.

[2] Davies and Stump, “The Oxford Handbook of Aquinas,” 40-41. Herein lies a direct contradiction to the noetic effects of sin on the ability to reason properly without the intervention of Scripture as a guide.

[3] Robert Pasnau, “Thomas Aquinas,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, December 7, 2022, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/#Life.

[4] Oliphint and Haykin, “Thomas Aquinas,” 4.

[5] Davies and Stump, “The Oxford Handbook of Aquinas,” 33.

[6] Ibid.

[7] “St. Thomas Aquinas,” Summa Theologica, accessed May 9, 2023, http://www.domcentral.org/summa/.

Knowledge of God through Natural Reason

Understanding Thomas’s view on the knowledge of God, it is imperative to grasp his mindset on natural reason. In Summa Theologica, I q. 12 a. 12 s.c., Thomas references Romans 1:19. He says, “It is written (Rom. 1:19), ‘That which is known of God,’ namely, what can be known of God by natural reason, ‘is manifest in them.’”[1] Thomas, it seems, desires to give man the benefit of the doubt and determine if he can indeed come to a knowledge of God without Divine intervention. He attempts to divide the knowledge of God’s essence from His effects.

            Thomas says this about essence and effect;

Our natural knowledge begins from sense. Hence our natural knowledge can go as far as it can be led by sensible things. But our mind cannot be led by sense so far as to see the essence of God; because the sensible effects of God do not equal the power of God as their cause. Hence from the knowledge of sensible things the whole power of God cannot be known; nor therefore can His essence be seen. But because they are His effects and depend on their cause, we can be led from them so far as to know of God “whether He exists,” and to know of Him what must necessarily belong to Him, as the first cause of all things, exceeding all things caused by Him.[2]

While it is true mankind cannot know all there is to know about God, especially in His essence, God has revealed Himself through nature, as Romans 1 shows, but Thomas misses the overall point of Romans 1. Thomas takes his reasoning further by replying to the objections in Summa. “Reply to Objection 2: God is known by natural knowledge through the images of His effects.”[3] Thomas has some justification for this statement. To understand his error and where he had it partly right, an examination of Romans 1:18-23 is necessary, and it is essential to break this into a verse or two at a time to make the exegetical point required.

^“For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who by their unrighteousness suppress the truth. For what can be known about God is plain to them, because God has shown it to them”^[4] (Rom. 1:18-19).

            Paul begins with the powerful statement, “the wrath of God is revealed,” and it is revealed against ungodliness and unrighteousness. Understanding Paul’s purpose for such a bold statement begins with grasping verses 16 and 17, where he explains why. The gospel is the power of God for salvation. Verse 17 informs the reader that this reveals the righteousness of God, and it comes through faith. Mounce says, “The gospel reveals a righteousness of God that is distinct from human righteousness.”^[5] Paul sets the table, saying that you cannot come to God outside of faith in Christ. God’s wrath is reserved for the ungodly, and it culminates in a false knowledge of God through suppression of the truth.

Thomas errs when he thinks that God showing it to them is a universal revelation of God’s goodness toward mankind in his free offer of salvation. While on the one hand, God does reveal Himself to mankind, but the purpose is to eliminate any excuses. Paul writes, “For what can be known about God is plain to them,” and at the end of verse 20, “So they are without excuse.” Why is it plain to them, and why are they without excuse? This is because they “by their unrighteousness suppress the truth.” The suppression of truth is how the unrighteous justify their denial of God and continue living according to their wicked hearts’ dictates. Mounce provides clarity on the suppression of truth,

The people of whom Paul spoke were those who by their wicked and sinful lives “suppress the truth.” Truth cannot be changed, but it can be held down or stifled. Wickedness “denies … truth its full scope” (Knox). We will learn in the verses that follow that God has revealed to all humans something of his eternal power and nature. Yet people refuse to believe, and as a result their understanding is darkened. To turn willfully against God is to move from light into darkness. The blindness that follows is self-imposed.^[6]       

Continuing through the passage, Paul is metaphorically tightening the noose around the neck of the unbelieving skeptic who claims there is no god. If Thomas sought consistency in his hermeneutical methodology by utilizing the scripture interpretation principle, he would have spent time examining an overall biblical theology on man’s inability outside of regeneration. Thomas understood there was a relationship between God’s grace and spiritual understanding, regeneration, and intellectual knowledge. Perhaps he was more inclined toward a type of prevenient grace. Oliphint quotes Thomas from The Summa Contra Gentiles, “Now in those things which we hold about God there is truth in two ways (duplex Veritatis modus). For certain things that are true about God wholly surpass the capability of human reason….”[7] In contrast, Calvin understood the need for Divine grace. Calvin writes;

Whereas something of the natural gifts of understanding, judgment and will “remain as a residue,” the supernatural gifts of faith, love and holiness were “taken away” when Adam sinned. This does not mean, however, as the Scholastics maintained, that the natural gifts (e.g., the remnants of man’s understanding) are so sufficiently intact that man is able to stir himself up to seek the grace of God. Rather, his mind is “plunged into deep darkness” and his will is “so bound to wicked desires that it cannot strive after the right.” Divine grace is absolutely necessary for the restoration of even these natural gifts.[8]

Calvin understood the correct relationship between man’s natural ability to discern, “there is a God,” but did not assign too much credit to man that he might ascend to God. Paul continues in verse 21 with the difference between knowing God and not honoring Him. Honor is ascribed to glory and honor, giving thanks to God, and natural man does not have this desire, as Calvin maintains, and the scriptures confirm, “their foolish hearts were darkened” (Rom. 1:21).

Man’s knowledge of God is limited in its scope due to the inherent nature of sin, known as the noetic effect. When God told Adam that if he ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, he would surely die (Gen. 2:17), he died spiritually the day he ate. Paul reminds his readers that according to Ephesians 2:1, that man is dead in his sins and transgressions, and proper anthropology is critical for understanding God. The deadness Paul describes is the spiritual death of Genesis and to all of Adam’s posterity.

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[1] Ibid

[2] Whether god can be known in this life by natural reason? – domcentral.org, accessed May 10, 2023, http://www.domcentral.org/summa/letter/summa-Iq12a12.pdf.

[3] Ibid.

^[4] Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from The Holy Bible: English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Bibles, 2016).

^[5] Robert H. Mounce, Romans, vol. 27, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1995), 72.

^[6] Mounce, Romans, 77.

[7] Oliphint and Haykin, “Thomas Aquinas,” 12.

[8] Jean Calvin, “Sermons on Job” (Edinburgh, UK: Banner of Truth Trust, 2022), 253.

Existence of God

Based on his natural theology, Thomas Aquinas uses an Aristotelian framework to understand and prove God’s existence. In Summa Theologica, Thomas uses Question 2 and Question 3 to provide his arguments for the existence and simplicity of God. Thomas uses five proofs, commonly referred to as, The Five Ways, for the existence of God. Whether Thomas is trying to prove the Christian God, or some generic “higher power” is often debated but makes all the difference in the ultimate sense. What is meant here, by ultimate sense, is the determining factor of eternality for the human soul. If Thomas successfully convinces someone of the existence of God or a god, it matters very little in the end if they don’t receive the One True God unto salvation. Thomas’s teaching and philosophical framework are dangerous to orthodox Christianity, especially from an apologetic argument. Apologetics will be the final topic for discussion. The first three proofs of the five will be discussed in this paper.

The First Way is what Aquinas called “the most manifest” and is often considered the best of the arguments for the existence of God. The basic premise states that there is something that moves things, but that thing itself is unmoved, and additionally, the unmoved mover causes all things but itself to be uncaused. Oliphint summarizes how Aquinas borrows this concept from Aristotle, “Thus, the argument borrowed by Aquinas from Aristotle is in the latter’s Physics, not his Metaphysics. Aquinas, however, seems to be arguing from the perspective of being itself, and only doing so is he able to conclude with the assertion that there is an Unmoved Mover.”[1]

On the surface, this seems to be a reasonable argument for the existence of God. Ultimately, something must have caused all things to come into existence, and is it logical that this primary cause is God? Yes, that makes the most sense for the already-convinced Christian, but it regretfully leaves out an essential element of the Christian faith: special revelation. Summarizing the weaknesses of Thomistic thought through his neglect of biblical revelation to root and ground his arguments is possible. If Thomas uses revelation, it is a backup to natural reasoning or a second level of understanding. In other words, special revelation is relevant but serves a different purpose.

The Apostle Paul argues differently; in his example, those seeking wisdom would do well to imitate. “And Paul went in, as was his custom, and on three Sabbath days he reasoned with them from the Scriptures” (Acts 17:2). Paul does not utilize natural theology to win the Jews. He reasons from the Scriptures. One could argue that it employed different methods for different audiences, and in a way, Paul utilized a different tactic, but it still landed in the same place. When Paul was in Athens, the text says in verse 17, “So he reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews and the devout persons, and in the marketplace every day with those who happened to be there” (Acts 17:17). When Paul gains the attention of the philosophers they say, “He seems to be a preacher of foreign divinities” – because he was preaching Jesus and the resurrection” (Acts 17:19). While it would seem prudent for Paul to go from natural reasoning to the Scriptures, he first reasons from the Scriptures, then inserts the poets and philosophers and back to the resurrected Christ as the cornerstone of his argument. A biblical understanding of the existence of God is foundational to the correct knowledge of God, not just about God. The weakness in Thomas’s approach is that he neglects the primary source of God’s revelation as being superior to all others, and not only superior but nothing can be known for sure without it.[2] The Scriptures are the foundation of truth and the only infallible and steady anchor by which God has definitively revealed himself.

In his second way, Thomas uses a similar argument to the first, but rather than motion, he uses causation. If something is, it is because it was caused by something else. The problem here could be an infinite regress, where it never ends, and there is never an ultimate cause, but Thomas recognizes this as a problem and says there must be an uncaused causer, to continue the similar language of the first way. The problems with this are identical to the issues with the first way and ultimately come back to the denial of Scripture as the first and final authority of truth.

Oliphint summarizes the first, second, and third ways of Aquinas, “all of which can be grouped as ‘cosmological arguments.’”[3] One can never achieve solid footing with this argument; it depends on human reasoning and understanding to conclude, and one is left to ask, “How do you know?”[4] Where, or what is the source material that has authority over human reason, or is human reason the highest authority? In a battle for the truth, it does little good to concede biblical revelation for a form of lesser knowledge, and if the “sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God” (Eph. 6:17), truly is the sword, then why put away the sword?

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[1] Oliphint and Haykin , “Thomas Aquinas,” 58.

[2] The argument here is that the atheist uses borrowed capital to reason against the god they do not believe in, but without an absolute source of truth nothing can be known for certain.

[3] Oliphint and Haykin, “Thomas Aquinas,” 81.

[4] Ibid., 87.

The Simplicity of God

The simplicity of God is less than simple, but, Thomas’s understanding is complex and nuanced in many ways. Eleonore Stump says, “[T]he doctrine is central to his philosophy and theology.”[1] Breaking it down into three parts simplifies Aquinas’s understanding of simplicity. Stump provides a succinct definition of the three claims,

(1) It is impossible that God have any spatial or temporal parts that could be distinguished from one another as here rather than there or as now rather than then.

(2) It is impossible that God have any intrinsic accidental properties.

(3) Whatever can be intrinsically attributed to God must in reality just be the unity that is his essence.[2]

What exactly is God, and how and what is He made from? The question boils down to His essence and being, defined using the Latin terms id uod est (essence) and esse (being). Aquinas categorizes these differences by saying that essence is concrete and particular, whereas being is not. The problems regarding Thomas’s view of God’s essence and being are abundant. He struggles to understand the relationship between these two. Oliphint summarizes, “But, given Thomas’s distinction between an esse and an id quod este—where the former is always and only abstract and the latter is always and only concrete—it may appear that ‘Aquinas is willing to violate the laws of logic as regards to God.’ He is positing that two incompatible properties are actually identical…It is at this point that Stump invokes the notion of quantum metaphysics.”[3] Stump uses the example of this concept and says there are scriptural texts that say, “God is love,” but also, at times, “God is loving.” In abstract terms, God is love (abstract – esse) or loving (concrete – id quod este). Thomas says in Summa Theologica, “With regard to what God himself is (secundum rem), God himself is neither universal nor particular.”[4] Stump goes on to say that care must be given when making claims about God and that it is acceptable to say he is, esse, but equally true is that he is, id quod est.

Once again, Thomas’s philosophical undergirding continues to cause issues with his theological understanding. The writers of the Westminster Confession of Faith and, subsequently, the 2^nd London Baptist Confession of Faith begin with a triune understanding of God in his essence and being. “The Lord our God is but one only living and true God; whose subsistence is in and of Himself, infinite in being and perfection; whose essence cannot be comprehended by any but Himself;”[5] The starting point for theology proper begins with the Scriptures, of which the confession clings. The Reformers had the advantage of a more developed and robust theology, but they all had the Scriptures, and here is or should always be the beginning point for theology.

Oliphint rightly makes this point clear,

If we begin with biblical revelation, however (something that Thomas’s natural theology cannot do) we can begin with, instead of categories of esse and id quod est, the one essence of God as three hypostases, or subsistences. In other words, we can begin, contrary to Aquinas, with the ontological Trinity. With these biblical categories in view, we are able to affirm both that God’s essence is who he is and that there is no possibility that he could be otherwise, and that each of the three subsistences of the Godhead can and does act as that one essence.[6]

A prominent and consistent error in Thomas’s theological structure appears to be his dependence or preference toward a philosophical framework buttressed by natural theology. Theology students cannot ignore his insights and the sheer volume of work, but they require an examination through a robust biblical theology. This matter is of the utmost importance for the last topic, apologetics. Souls are at stake in a gospel presentation, and one rooted in natural theology is not built on the rock of Christ but on human wisdom and philosophy.

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[1] Davies and Stump, “The Oxford Handbook of Aquinas,” 135.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Oliphint and Haykin, “Thomas Aquinas,” 106-107.

[4] ST I q.13 a.9 ad 2.

[5]” The 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith (with Modern Features), accessed May 19, 2023, https://1689londonbaptistconfession.com/2.

[6] Oliphint and Haykin, “Thomas Aquinas,” 109.

Apologetics

 The last area this paper seeks to explore is apologetics and how Thomas’s theology affects the defense of the faith. As previously noted, the primary error in Thomas’s theology is that he builds on theological sand rather than the rock of Christ. He fails to build around the word of God but instead places more emphasis on philosophy and natural reason. The most notable evidence of this thinking is revealed in his, Five Ways to prove the existence of God, and as commented on above, demonstrating God’s existence through these ideas is reasonable for the convinced Christian. However, the downside is that it is unlikely to convince the unbeliever to surrender his life to Christ based upon these proofs. Jesus said, “And when he comes, he will convict the world concerning sin and righteousness and judgment” (John 16:8), referring to the Holy Spirit. The Spirit convicts of sin impending judgment and how to be reconciled to God through Christ’s righteousness. The mind is not only incapable of understanding and surrendering to Christ, but it is also unwilling. The natural man will never come to Christ of his own free will because his free will is corrupt according to his nature in Adam. He is, as Paul says, a slave to unrighteousness. (Rom. 6:16).

 Norman Geisler argues that Aquinas understood the noetic effect of sin, and the critics of Thomas misunderstood his intentions. He writes,

There is another widely held but mistaken view that Aquinas believed the mind was only finite but not fallen. This is contrary to his clear statement that “the mind of man falls far short when it comes to the things of God. Look at the philosophers; even in searching into questions about man they have erred in many points and held contradictory views. To the end, therefore, that a knowledge of God, undoubted and secure, might be present among men, it was necessary that divine things be taught by way of faith, spoken as it were by the Word of God who cannot lie.” For “the searching of natural reason does not fill mankind’s need to know even those divine realities which reason could prove. Belief in them is not, therefore, superfluous. Aquinas asserted emphatically that: “human reason is very deficient in things concerning God. A sign of this is that philosophers, in their inquiry into human affairs by natural investigation, have fallen into many errors, and have disagreed among themselves.[1]

 A difficulty in discerning Thomas’s intent is using certain types of language with different interpretations as to the actual meaning. When Thomas says, “the mind of man falls far short when it comes to the things of God,” what exactly does he mean? Is he referencing Romans 3:23, “For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God,” or does he believe that man can work himself up to the right standing with God, as was a common philosophy in the Middle Ages? Despite Geisler’s protests, what is more, convincing is how Thomas’s overall worldview and his misunderstanding of certain Scriptures point to a misunderstanding of the gospel.

Cornelius Van Til uses the pedagogy of Mr. Black, Mr. White, and Mr. Grey to provide examples of different types of evangelism methodology. Van Til’s understanding of Christianity is founded firmly in the truth of Scripture, and he writes, “True, Christianity is in accord with the moral nature of man. But this is so only because the moral nature of man is first in accord with what the Bible says it is, that is, originally created perfect, but now wholly corrupted in its desires through the fall of man.”[2] Here is the starting point for proper apologetics and it affirms the weakness in the approach Aquinas appears to prefer. Van Til gives more evidence of his methodology here,

Mr. White claims that I am a creature of God. He says that all facts are made by God and controlled by the providence of God. He says that all men have sinned against God in Adam their representative. He adds that therefore I am spiritually blind and morally perverse. He says all this and more on the basis of the absolute authority of Scripture. He would interpret me, my facts, and my logic in terms of the authority of that Scripture. He says I need this authority. He says I need nothing but this authority. His Scripture, he claims, is sufficient and final. And the whole thing is clear.[3]

Van Til’s message here is a clear and articulate gospel presentation. He defines the necessity of Scripture to defend the faith and proclaim man’s need for salvation in Christ. His work here is masterful and contrasted with Aquinas’s; it leaves this writer with little doubt about the superior method to employ. It does not diminish Thomas’s contribution to Christianity as a whole. Even with a mediocre or bad apologetic, Aquinas’s volume of work offers value in many areas, but when directly applying the gospel to lost souls, a Reformed and presuppositional approach is superior.

Van Til continues to set the standard by which apologetics should be defined, and that is not to say that Van Til was anything more than a man capable of error. It is to say that he was saturated with divine knowledge obtained through the Scriptures. In comparison to Thomas, there is no comparison. Van Til writes,

He now saw clearly first that the arguments for the existence of God as conducted by Mr. Grey are based on the assumption that the unbeliever is right with respect to the principles in terms of which he explains all things. These principles are: (a) that man is not a creature of God but rather is ultimate and as such must properly consider himself instead of God the final reference point in explaining all things; (b) that all other things beside himself are non-created but controlled by chance; and (c) that the power of logic that he possesses is the means by which he must determine what is possible or impossible in the universe of chance.[4]

The differences in a Thomistic approach compared to Van Til is quite stark, and it is not easy to draw positive conclusions from Thomas. The philosophy of natural reason is problematic when seeking to win the lost to Christ, where a biblical approach is far better.

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[1] “The Apologetics of Thomas Aquinas,” Apologetics Resource Center, Accessed May 12, 2023, https://arcapologetics.org/apologetics-thomas-aquinas/.

[2] Cornelius Van Til, The Defense of the Faith. (The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company: Philadelphia, 1955), 315.

[3] Ibid., 331.

[4] Ibid., 339.

Conclusion

In a modern context, it is often difficult to reconcile the practices of the day that occurred in a time such as Medieval History. Thomas Aquinas typifies the mindset and teaching pervasive in the period. While he is a worthwhile study, the Scriptures provide the filter to view Thomas for those in the Reformed camp. The movement to push Thomistic teaching into the mainstream must be critiqued and evaluated, never taken for granted, and accepted as orthodox.

God has not left the world without direction. These directions lead to the cross of Christ, whether in the Old or the New Testaments. The cross and the gospel are the central themes of God’s design to bring glory to Himself. God has declared the answer, found in the work and person of Jesus Christ. It is the critical work of the exegete of God’s word to root out these gospel jewels for the edification and benefit of the hearer, to proclaim with joy that salvation is of the Lord.

Bibliography

Calvin, Jean. Sermons on Job. Edinburgh, UK: Banner of Truth Trust, 2022.

Oliphint, K. Scott, and Haykin Michael A G. Thomas Aquinas. Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing, 2017.

Davies, Brian, and Eleonore Stump. The Oxford Handbook of Aquinas. Oxford etc.: Oxford University Press, 2016.

Mounce, Robert H. Romans, vol. 27, The New American Commentary Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1995.

Pasnau, Robert. “Thomas Aquinas.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, December 7, 2022. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/#Life.

“St. Thomas Aquinas.” Summa Theologica. Accessed May 9, 2023. http://www.domcentral.org/summa/

“The Apologetics of Thomas Aquinas.” Apologetics Resource Center, Accessed May 12, 2023. https://arcapologetics.org/apologetics-thomas-aquinas/.

“The 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith (with Modern Features).” Accessed May 19, 2023. https://1689londonbaptistconfession.com/2.

Van Til, Cornelius. The Defense of the Faith. The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company: Philadelphia, 1955.

Whether god can be known in this life by natural reason? – domcentral.org. Accessed May 10, 2023. http://www.domcentral.org/summa/letter/summa-Iq12a12.pdf.

Introduction

The Medieval Church may be the least understood of those in church history. In today’s world, it seems to carry little significance or value. It was a world in tremendous flux and upheaval as Christianity sought to find itself. The Medieval Church is precariously situated between the Early Church and the Protestant Reformation. Even in the turmoil of the time and an uncertain future, the Sovereign Hand of God was at work.

Roman Catholicism had a stranglehold on Christianity, but more specifically on the people of Christianity. The abuses were abundant, and the characters animated. Among them comes a man that would work toward addressing the abuses and begin his version of a reformation. Innocent III was this man.

This paper seeks to address Innocent III’s practical and doctrinal advance of the Papacy and to gain a deeper understanding of how Innocent III has shaped modern-day Catholicism for the better or, the worse, depending on one’s view. No matter the view, without a doubt, this man impacted the Medieval world and those that would follow in his footsteps.

Background

Tumultuous times often bring forth visionary rulers, and Innocent III was such a man. He is often and regularly regarded as the most influential Pope of the Medieval period. Born Lotario de’ Conti in 1160 or 1161, he was the son of Count Trasimund and the nephew of Clement III. He received his early education in Rome and studied law at Bologna. Lotario also had a keen interest in theology and studied in Paris, where he proved himself well-respected in the discipline of theology.

 Lotario obtained various positions within the church after his return to Rome in 1181, including the role of sub-deacon and later Cardinal-Deacon of St. George in 1190. On January 8, 1198, Pope Celestine II died, and Lotario de’ Conti was elected the next Pope, he was only thirty-seven years of age at the time. Reluctantly, he accepted and was named Innocent III. Innocent would not allow his reluctance to become timidity. He quickly began to implement changes to the Empire. Changes that were necessary and would change the Empire’s course of history.

            Mark Galli and Ted Olsen commenting on Innocent:

Innocent was born to rule; he was exceptionally gifted in intellect, will, and leadership. He was the foremost church lawyer of the age. Still, he had a combative spirit and was prone to fits of depression. He began his reign by purging church officials not loyal to him and by curbing excesses of his own household. Plates of gold were exchanged for wood, and nobles from royal families were replaced by monks. He reasserted control over the papal estates, though after an attempt on his life, he gave his family charge of key cities.^[1]

A Vision for the Empire

Innocent III had an extremely high view of his office, shaping his leadership style and vision for the Empire. He believed himself as the successor of Peter, a direct representative of Christ. Innocent III exclusively took on the title Vicar of Christ, and according to Catholic Answers, “Innocent III appeals for his power to remove bishops to the fact that he is Vicar of Christ (cap. “Inter corporalia”, 2, “De trans. ep.”).”[1] Innocent’s vision for the Empire was complete control and expansion beyond Rome.

He believed his office that of a semi-Divine status, and he said, “Verily the representative of Christ, the successor of Peter, the anointed of the Lord, the God of Pharaoh set midway between God and man, below God but above man, less than God but more than man, judging all other men, but himself judged by none.”^[2] Innocent’s thinking, leadership skill, and desire to control set the stage for a spiritual conquest while providing for and showing respect for the authority of kings and rulers. Innocent III was a unique and exciting ruler and largely considered his time the height of the Papacy.

Initial Conquest

In 1197 Henry VI died, and there was no immediate successor. Innocent III took this opportunity to restore papal power in Rome and the States of the Church, representing the lands and revenues associated with those lands. Given that the rest of Italy had grown weary of German invasions, Innocent quickly extended his power over all of Italy.

It was not long before Germany became an area of interest as there were two claimants to the German throne, and Innocent sided with Otto IV. The Catholic Encyclopedia provides more details:

Offended at what they considered an unjust interference on the part of the Pope, the adherents of Philip sent a letter to him in which they protested against his interference in the imperial affairs of Germany. In his answer Innocent stated that he had no intention of encroaching upon the rights of the princes, but insisted upon the rights of the Church in this matter. He emphasized especially that the conferring of the imperial crown belonged to the Pope alone.^[1]

Innocent was also active in France and England. He considered one of his duties to rule not only the church but the entire world. In today’s vernacular, he might be regarded as not only a Christian Nationalist but a Christian Internationalist. Innocent continued to expand his influence over nations and princes. He was determined to know and investigate whether a king was worthy of his crown, and his office would oversee the installment to these offices.

Innocent affected nearly every country in Europe. His authority extended far and wide:

There was scarcely a country in Europe over which Innocent III did not in some way or other assert the supremacy which he claimed for the Papacy. He excommunicated Alfonso IX of Leon, for marrying a near relative, Berengaria, a daughter of Alfonso VIII, contrary to the laws of the Church, and effected their separation in 1204. For similar reasons he annulled, in 1208, the marriage of the crown-prince, Alfonso of Portugal, with Urraca, daughter of Alfonso of Castile.^[2]

In November of 1209, Innocent III excommunicated King John of England. The excommunication came over a dispute regarding the appointment of a new Archbishop of Canterbury. John was upset that he had not been consulted, and the controversy lasted for over four years. Ultimately, John went to Rome to bow at the feet of Innocent III, and Innocent showed his power, and the expansion of papal influence grew.

World Domination

Pope Innocent III also viewed his role as a defender of the Catholic faith and a fighter against heresy. The Albigenses were also referred to as the Cathari or the Cathars. The Albigenses despised Roman Catholicism and saw the church as immoral and corrupt. Due to their promotion of itinerant preachers, the Roman Church saw this as a threat to their power and authority, and Innocent took up the charge to rid the world of the Cathar heresy. Not only was it one of the bloodiest of Innocent’s Crusades it eventually led to The Inquisition, which oversaw the death and torture of many. Countless Albigenses were killed for their faith in these crusades, “More than 15,000 peasants were slaughtered in one town alone.”^[1]

Innocent III also sought to restore the Holy Land. The Catholic Encyclopedia states, “Innocent had at heart the recovery of the Holy Land, and for this end undertook the Fourth Crusade.”^[2] The Holy Land’s conquest and restoration were a high priority during Innocent’s tenure as Pope. Despite his great efforts, The Fourth Crusade fell short of its fund-raising goals, and the crusade suffered, never making its destination. The crusade turned to Constantinople, much to Innocent III’s dissatisfaction, and rather than strengthening Christianity, the Eastern Church was left vulnerable and further divided from the West.

Church Reformation

Innocent III desired to reform the church at a time when it saw the eruption of sects and schisms due to church corruption. Innocent recognized the need to change and implemented it on a massive scale. He saw the excesses in luxurious living and drunken carousing and promoted honesty in the church’s practices.

During his reign, he recognized and gave patronage to two newly established reform groups, the Franciscans and the Dominicans. He issued over 6,000 decrees and formalized many of his reforms with the Fourth Lateran Council—where the term “transubstantiate” (meaning, the bread of Communion becomes the real body of Christ) was first officially used.^[1]   

Whether Innocent’s reforms are considered a success today is often in the eye of the beholder, but history reveals there is little doubt he was one of the most significant figures in Medieval Church, and Roman Catholic History. Innocent III sought to make changes and changes he did make.

Conclusion

In a modern context, it is often difficult to reconcile the practices of the day that occurred in a time such as Medieval History. Innocent III sought to grow the Christian Empire, which came at a price for many. He also sought to gain not only ecclesiastical power but political power, bringing much-needed reform to the church. According to The Catholic Encyclopedia, “The labours of Innocent in the inner government of the Church appear to be of a very subordinate character when they are put beside his great politico-ecclesiastical achievements which brought the papacy to the zenith of its power.”^[1] Innocent III was a power broker in almost every sense of the concept. He sought to expand and reform the Catholic Church and snuff out what he deemed heretical movements. Innocent III was a mover, a shaker, and an entrencher of the Papacy in every real sense of the phrase.

Bibliography

Catholic Answers. “Vicar of Christ.” Accessed April 13, 2023, Catholic Answers. Catholic Answers, September 11, 2020. https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/vicar-of-christ.

Galli, Mark, and Ted Olsen. 131 Christians Everyone Should Know. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 2000.

Ott, Michael, “Pope Innocent III,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church, ed. Charles G. Herbermann et al. (New York: The Encyclopedia Press; The Universal Knowledge Foundation, 1907–1913.

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^[1] Ott, “Pope Innocent III.”

^[1] Ibid, 325.

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^[1] Galli and Olsen, “Introduction,” in 131 Christians Everyone Should Know, 324.

^[2] Ott, “Pope Innocent III.

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^[1] Michael Ott, “Pope Innocent III,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church, ed. Charles G. Herbermann et al. (New York: The Encyclopedia Press; The Universal Knowledge Foundation, 1907–1913).

^[2] Ott, “Pope Innocent III.”

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[1] Catholic Answers, “Vicar of Christ,” Catholic Answers (Catholic Answers, September 11, 2020), https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/vicar-of-christ.

^[2] Galli and Olsen, “Introduction,” in 131 Christians Everyone Should Know, 324.

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[1] Mark Galli and Ted Olsen, “Introduction,” in 131 Christians Everyone Should Know Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000), 324.

Chapter 9: Of Free Will

Introduction

                The topic of free will has been misunderstood and misrepresented throughout history, and it often justifies good or bad behavior. Perhaps, part of the misunderstanding of free will is man’s inability to think clearly and rightly about biblical topics outside of regeneration and a new life in Christ. One other possibility is that it contradicts their theology. Mankind tends to hold himself up as an example of goodness and overestimates his abilities. The writers of the 2^nd London Baptist Confession of Faith recognized free will as a tricky topic or one to be held in tension. How much free will does man have compared to what God grants him? With these issues in mind, it is the goal to examine Chapter 9, Of Free Will, to exposit what God and the writers of the Confession teach about this important topic.

1. God has endued the will of man with that natural liberty and power of acting upon choice, that it is neither forced, nor by any necessity of nature determined to do good or evil. 1

1. Matthew 17:12; James 1:14; Deuteronomy 30:19

The first thing to notice about Chapter 9, Paragraph 1 is that God is the first cause of man’s[1] ability to do anything. He, being the Creator, has created man and provided man with a will. Here we see man created in the image of God (Gen. 1:27). The modern version of the Confession substitutes endued with the word given, meaning God has given to mankind everything pertaining to life and godliness (2 Pet. 1:3). The ability that God has provided is what the Confession calls natural liberty and the power of acting upon choice.

Natural liberty and the power of acting upon choice need to be defined. It is imperative to define free will and what free will is not.

Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary provides this:

1. : voluntary choice or decision
2. : freedom of humans to make choices that are not determined by prior causes or by divine intervention[2]

Most people understand they can do or avoid what they want. To have the ability to cross the street or stay put, run a red light, stop at a red light, wear blue jeans, or wear shorts. Human beings can make these natural choices without any spiritual or moral consequences. In this sense, man can make a free-will choice, and while God is sovereign over all things, He allows these choices.

Sam Waldron clarifies, “The human will is not subject to any physical necessity. Men are free. Their choices are not determined by factors external to their free, personal identities and moral natures. There could not be the human responsibility and accountability the Bible clearly teaches, unless this were the case (Proverbs 1:24 – 33; John 3:18, 19).”[3]

The Bible rejects the teaching of determinism. Britannica defines determinism this way.

determinism, in philosophy and science, the thesis that all events in the universe, including human decisions and actions, are causally inevitable. Determinism entails that, in a situation in which a person makes a certain decision or performs a certain action, it is impossible that he or she could have made any other decision or performed any other action. In other words, it is never true that people could have decided or acted otherwise than they actually did.[4]

In His wisdom, God has provided mankind with decision-making abilities and the freedom to choose certain things, and in God’s wisdom, man is also responsible for his rejection of God. He is not forced to choose or reject God; instead, God changes the heart of men so that they willingly and freely choose Him (Ez. 36:26).

There are multiple facets to God’s sovereignty and man’s responsibility, and both are at play. Waldron defines it well when he says, “Divine freedom (God’s sovereign, decretive will) and human freedom are not in conflict. Rather, it is only because our wills are made in the image of the freedom of God’s supreme will that our derivative wills are free. Human freedom is rooted in God’s sovereign freedom.”[5]

It is also essential to understand that free will is not libertarian or that man is autonomous.[6] While some believe they have autonomy, it is easy to prove they do not. As an example, a person must eat to sustain their life. They must work to provide a home or attend a class on time to achieve a grade. Nobody is without responsibility. Even those that reject authority and the idea of being accountable to anyone need necessities to survive, so their will is not wholly free.

Lastly, these choices are not forced or bound by nature to do good or evil. These choices are legitimate. They are not predetermined as determinism defines them, nor are they without consequence. The choice to commit an evil act land squarely on the shoulders of the one who made it. While the old statement, “The devil made me do it,” has some validity, since mankind’s natural inclinations are bent toward evil, it does not relieve them of responsibility.

2. Man, in his state of innocency, had freedom and power to will and to do that which was good and well-pleasing to God, 2 but yet was unstable, so that he might fall from it. 3

2. Ecclesiastes 7:29 3. Genesis 3:6

“And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, “You may surely eat of every tree of the garden, but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die” (Gen. 2:16—17).

God’s command to Adam was clear. Adam lacked for nothing. God provided all of Adam’s needs and only gave one regulation. He was forbidden from eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Is it reasonable to believe that God had equipped Adam with the ability to obey? In paragraph 1, the Confession states that mankind is not forced to do good or evil. God provided Adam with an opportunity. Do this, and you will live. Do this, and you will die.

K.A. Matthews provides clarity,

“The prohibition against eating the fruit of the “tree of knowledge” gave Adam opportunity to worship God through loyal devotion. Luther likened the tree to “Adam’s church, altar, and pulpit. Here he was to yield to God the obedience he owed, give recognition to the Word and will of God, give thanks to God, and call upon God for aid against temptation.”^[7]

Adam’s choices were real choices. He has been given God’s command not to eat of this one tree, and as Matthews articulates, he can call upon God to help in his temptation. If Adam had rejected the serpent’s lies and confronted his wife, he would have pleased God. God provided the testing of his faith, but Adam failed the test.

It is also significant to understand that Adam’s world was good and very good (Gen. 1:31). In other words, the world had not yet experienced sin. Adam holds a unique position in humanity as the first human being and the first in a state of innocence, as the Confession says. He was uncorrupted by sin but not incorruptible. As humanity’s federal head, Adam would represent all of mankind and his posterity. Paul summarizes this in Romans 5.

“Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned—” (Rom. 5:12).

Adam’s act of rebellion ushered sin into the world, and with the entrance of sin, God’s words, “you shall surely die,” echoed forth.

“Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For as by the one man’s disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man’s obedience the many will be made righteous” (Rom. 5:18—19).

God’s testing period for Adam ended in failure. His trespass condemned the whole human race under sin, yet God promised a Redeemer. His obedience and righteous acts will save sinners from their sins.

Adam proved his instability by failing to keep the command, and just as the Confession states, he fell from this state of innocence and became a transgressor of the law. Adam had the power to choose good, but instead, he chose evil.

3. Man, by his fall into a state of sin, has wholly lost all ability of will to any spiritual good accompanying salvation; 4 so as a natural man, being altogether averse from that good, and dead in sin, 5 is not able by his own strength to convert himself, or to prepare himself thereunto. 6

4. Romans 5:6, 8:7 5. Ephesians 2:1, 5 6. Titus 3:3-5; John 6:44

While it is clear from the Confessions’ first two paragraphs on free will that mankind makes legitimate choices in life, these choices are without coercion. What is the difference between man’s “morally neutral” decisions and the free will decision to follow the Lord? There is no relationship. Paragraph three transitions to a post-fall condition and sets up a clear dividing line between everyday decisions and the decision to follow Christ.

It all begins with a promise from God to Adam that if he remains obedient, he will live, but should he disobey God’s commands he will surely die (Gen. 2:17). As the narrative of Genesis progresses to Adam’s rebellion, the immediate consequence of his disobedience appears. God pronounces curses upon him and the woman, but Adam does not drop dead.

It is worth a short detour to look at how Adam did indeed die, but not in the immediate. The Confession lays out free will in a progressive manner. Waldron says, “The first paragraph defines free will. Paragraphs 2 – 5 deal with the different states in which it exists. These move from the state of innocency, where it is marked by instability, to the state of glory, where it is marked by immutability. As finite, ethical beings we do undergo a moral and ethical development.”[8]

What sort of death occurred in Adam and all his posterity? Matthew Henry remarks on one way in which Adam died,

Thou shalt become mortal and capable of dying; the grant of immortality shall be recalled, and that defence shall depart from thee. Thou shalt become obnoxious to death, like a condemned malefactor that is dead in the law” (only, because Adam was to be the root of mankind, he was reprieved); “nay, the harbingers and forerunners of death shall immediately seize thee, and thy life, thenceforward, shall be a dying life: and this, surely; it is a settled rule, the soul that sinneth, it shall die.”^[9]

Of course, Adam eventually died in the flesh, but a spiritual death occurred within Adam and all his posterity. The doctrine of original sin. Paul writes in Romans 5 as one of the proof texts the Confession provides, but a few verses later describe this death that passes to all.

“Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned” (Rom. 5:12).

Paragraph 3 provides the proof texts that indicate this spiritual death. Ephesians 2:1 is a prime example stating mankind is dead in his sins and transgressions. In this deadness, the Confessions states mankind is without any power to convert himself. He has not had the free will to will himself to God. Romans 3:11 says, “no one understand; no one seeks for God.” The simplicity of this statement is evident. The Spirit of God must move and draw, or man stays dead in his sin.

The quotation of John 6:44 is appropriate as Jesus said, “unless the Father draws him.” The drawing is never forced or compulsory; it is a work of the Spirit that makes a man willing. Calvin provides a succinct view.

“True, indeed, as to the kind of drawing, it is not violent, to compel men by external force; but still it is a powerful impulse of the Holy Spirit, which makes men willing who formerly were unwilling and reluctant.”^[10]

While it is essential to understand the inability to respond to God without God’s help, it is equally important to realize this does not provide man with a pass should he never come to Christ. The gospel invitation is a sincere invitation for all to come to Christ. Those that remain in their sin and rebellion do it willingly, which is the topic of paragraph 4.

4. When God converts a sinner, and translates him into the state of grace, He frees him from his natural bondage under sin, 7 and by His grace alone enables him freely to will and to do that which is spiritually good; 8 yet so as that by reason of his remaining corruptions, he does not perfectly, nor only will, that which is good, but does also will that which is evil. 9

7. Colossians 1:13; John 8:36 8. Philippians 2:13 9. Romans 7:15, 18-19, 21, 23

Paragraph 4 is a progressive step in Chapter 9 that relates to post-conversion. God converts a sinner. He takes him from his sin and moves him out of darkness and into his marvelous light (1 Pet. 2:9). There is a full-on change to him or her; they are now children of God. They have been justified and sanctified[11] by the blood of Christ.

Where he once was enslaved to sin (John 8:34), he now becomes a slave to righteousness (Rom. 6:16). The natural inclination or proclivity toward sin has now been radically altered toward godliness. The sinner has now become a saint and begins to live in the light of the gospel.

Ezekiel prophesied this new reality in chapter 36.

“And I will give you a new heart, and a new spirit I will put within you. And I will remove the heart of stone from your flesh and give you a heart of flesh. ²⁷ And I will put my Spirit within you, and cause you to walk in my statutes and be careful to obey my rules” (Ez. 36:26—27).

The change wrought by God in the heart gives a new attitude, affection, and an entirely new perspective. The outward evidence is obedience to the commandments of God. It does not mean perfection, for that would be impossible (1 John 1:8), and as the Confession continues to expand, evil still resides in the heart of the converted.

In many fundamental or strict orthodox circles, obedience tends to mark the status of justification. Mercifully, the Lord has provided a clear revelation that faith is never dependent upon works, but works will proceed from faith. The recent rise of Federal Vision Theology has reignited the debate about the law and gospel distinction. It can create confusion in the minds of many, especially in churches where overly zealous pastors attempt to assist the Holy Spirit in His work of sanctification toward the people. The tendency is to make judgments regarding salvation purely based on external measures. The Confession addresses this concern in Chapter 17, paragraph 3.[12]

In summary, the paragraph states that believers can fall into grievous sins for a time, but God will renew and preserve them in Christ to the end. Here is a powerful statement about the Divine grace of our Lord Jesus Christ. Man looks on the outside, but God looks upon the heart (1 Sam. 16:7).

Caution must be extended toward those acting in rebellion. The state of their salvation should be a two-way street. Dr. Brian Borgman preached an excellent sermon on not being overly righteous or overly wicked, providing context to the balance that needs to be maintained.[13] The ditches are steep on both sides of the narrow path. Avoiding licentiousness is just as important as avoiding legalism; they are both wrong and dangerous. The Confession addresses these concerns and provides the right balance if understood correctly.

True disciples, followers, and believers in the Lord Jesus Christ look forward to the day they are free from sin and the troubles of this present world, and that is the topic of the final paragraph of Chapter 9.

5. This will of man is made perfectly and immutably free to good alone in the state of glory only. 10

10. Ephesians 4:13

Ongoing sin will continue within the life of a believer. Paul spent a good portion of Romans chapter 7 relaying how this internal battle continues to rage. There will be no ultimate peace until glorification or the act of being perfected after physical death in this world.

The Confession writers tell us that man’s will is made perfectly and immutably free. The struggling believer is made whole. As the believer once saw dimly, he will now see clearly. The rags of sin are exchanged for those final garments of white that are perfect, in Christ, and unchangeable. Sin reigns no more. It is finally and totally eradicated in glorification. It is the ultimate consummation of the beauty in Christ.

Christians have a calling to do good in this world. They are to be light in a dark place and impact the society around them. Throughout history, Christians have sought to help the sick and indigent free slaves and stand against the horrors of abortion. The good done by Christians in these contexts are imperfect, and God only recognizes their good works as works done through Christ (Matt. 25:40). Works outside of Christ carry no eternal merit because it is impossible to please God outside of faith (Heb. 11:6).

Once the believer departs the present world and enters the kingdom of heaven, there will be no more pain, no more suffering, and no more struggle with sin. The will of the glorified believer will entirely focus on worshipping the redeemed Savior. They will forever be in the image of Christ as sons and daughters.

As John describes the final victory scene in Revelation, he says there be no more pain, no more tears, and no more death. Sin is the cause of all these, and when sin is vanquished, only beauty remains, and man’s free will has been wholly created new in Christ and glorification.

“He will wipe away every tear from their eyes, and death shall be no more, neither shall there be mourning, nor crying, nor pain anymore, for the former things have passed away” (Rev. 21:4).

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[1] For ease, the term “man” will be substituted for mankind or used interchangeably. The term includes male and female.

[2] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/freewill

[3]Samuel E. Waldron, A Modern Exposition of the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith, 5th ed. (Welwyn Garden City, UK: EP Books, 2016), 166.

[4] https://www.britannica.com/topic/determinism

[5] Ibid., 166.

[6] https://www.gotquestions.org/libertarian-free-will.html

^[7] K. A. Mathews, Genesis 1-11:26, vol. 1A, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1996), 210–211.

[8] Samuel E. Waldron, A Modern Exposition of the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith, 5th ed. (Welwyn Garden City, UK: EP Books, 2016), 166—167. 

^[9] Matthew Henry, Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Whole Bible: Complete and Unabridged in One Volume (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1994), 9.

^[10] John Calvin, Commentary on the Gospel according to John, vol. 1 (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2010), 257.

[11] Sanctification has an immediate effect (1 Cor. 6:11) but will also be ongoing (Heb. 10:14) in a progressive fashion, so this is not to say the sinner is fully sanctified.

[12] 3. And though they may, through the temptation of Satan and of the world, the prevalency of corruption remaining in them, and the neglect of means of their preservation, fall into grievous sins, and for a time continue therein, 9 whereby they incur God’s displeasure and grieve his Holy Spirit, 10 come to have their graces and comforts impaired, 11 have their hearts hardened, and their consciences wounded, 12 hurt and scandalize others, and bring temporal judgments upon themselves, 13 yet shall they renew their repentance and be preserved through faith in Christ Jesus to the end. 14

[13] https://www.sermonaudio.com/sermoninfo.asp?SID=1030221944157927

Introduction

“The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).[1]

Where did the gospel message first begin? The Gospel of Mark points to John the Baptist as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy regarding the gospel. If John fulfilled this prophecy, the gospel had a previous beginning point.

Jesus said these remarkable words, “Beginning with Moses and all the prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27). The critical, exegetical work of the Lord Jesus Christ tells us the gospel begins with Moses and that it is throughout all of the Old Testament.

To uncover the gospel in its totality requires starting at the beginning and showing that the Bible is a unified book bound together by the common theme of God’s good news declared to sinful man. If this thesis statement is true, there should be overwhelming evidence of the gospel message throughout the Old Testament as it points to Christ. This paper seeks to provide examples of the gospel throughout the Old Testament, which points to Christ as “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!” (John 1:29). 

The First Gospel

“I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel’” (Gen. 3:15).

When sin entered the world through the serpent’s deceit, God cursed mankind and all of Adam’s posterity (Rom. 5:12). The Apostle Paul declares Adam was a type of the one who was to come (Rom. 5:14). The obvious question to ask is, who is this one? Genesis 3:15 sets the answer to man’s sin problem and reconciliation with God in motion. C.H. Spurgeon said, “This is a most glorious promise, the first and only until the time of Abraham.”[2] What is revealed in this verse is nothing less than a divine promise of deliverance. Adam plunged humanity into sin and death through his act of rebellion. God saw the need in the immediate, as He had seen it before time began in the promise of a Redeemer. The great evangelist George Whitefield captures the predicament and the Divine’s answer to the problem:

An amazing scene of divine love here opens to our view, which had been from all eternity hid in the heart of God! Notwithstanding Adam and Eve were thus unhumbled, and did not so much as put up one single petition for pardon, God immediately passes sentence upon the serpent, and reveals to them a Savior.[3]

            The Lexham Bible Dictionary states Genesis 3:15 as the first gospel or protevangelium: “PROTEVANGELIUM Latin term meaning ‘first gospel.’ It refers to the promise of Gen 3:15 that the ‘seed of the woman’ would conquer the ‘seed of the serpent.’ This concept is applied to Jesus as Messiah (see Rom 16:20; Gal 3:16, 19, 29).”[4] In the opening chapter of Genesis, God had pronounced His work in creation as good, but after Adam and Eve’s creation, He pronounces the entirety of His work, “very good” (Gen. 1:31). Genesis chapter three sees the introduction of the serpent, the devil of old, and the manipulator of Eve as Adam stands by and observes the scene (Gen. 3:6). Immediately, things have changed, “then the eyes of both were opened, and they knew that they were naked. And they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves loincloths” (Gen 3:7). They immediately experienced something previously unknown: guilt, so they hid from God.

In the gospel message, the concept of guilt is an essential element. For Adam to know of his need for grace and mercy, he must understand he has violated God’s standard. God is not a harsh and capricious God, so He approaches Adam. K.A. Matthews offers a reason for God’s approach: “God is depicted as a gentle father seeking out his own. The means of uncovering their deed (like the serpent’s means of entrapment) is interrogation rather than charge and denunciation. The effect is pedagogical and permits the guilty to witness against themselves by their own admissions.”^[5]

God metes out the consequences of their sin through a series of curses. First to the serpent, then to the woman, and finally to Adam, but within the middle of the curses is the gospel’s promise. In His great love, God has paved a path for forgiveness and reconciliation through the offspring; the seed of the woman will come as a promised deliverer.

Abraham’s Gospel Defined

“For the promise to Abraham and his offspring that he would be heir of the world did not come through the law but through the righteousness of faith” (Rom. 4:13).

            Spurgeon said the gospel’s promise has been silent since the Garden, but not without types and allusions. Types and allusions are given to the reader through God closing the doors of the Ark, as one example, the Ark being a type of Christ and Jesus the narrow gate. God’s revelation is progressive, and as so, He unfolds history in humanly understandable bits and pieces. Understanding the worldwide flood as a manifestation of God’s justice yet the salvation of Noah and his family representing His mercy is imperative to form an accurate understanding of God in all His attributes.

The world has continued its steady decline since the flood, and it is apparent it needs the gospel. Robert Gonzales writes, “Yahweh’s judgment on the Babel endeavor did not eradicate human sin any more than his worldwide Flood erased antediluvian evil (8:21). Instead, it resulted in the dispersal of sinful people-groups throughout the ancient world.”[6] God continues to reach out to the Sons of Adam and covenant with him. The covenants begin with Adam and continue throughout redemptive history, but Adam’s progeny continues to break the promises. God is undeterred in His actions toward mankind, and as revelation continues to progress, God again initiates, this time with a Chaldean named Abram:

Now the LORD said to Abram, “Go from your country and your kindred and your father’s house to the land that I will show you. And I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who dishonors you I will curse, and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Gen 12:1-3).

            The gospel message is revealed to Abraham in a promise from God to bless him and to make his offspring more numerous than the stars in all the heaven, and God sets His love upon him, not only in material blessing but through faith (Rom. 4:9, 22; Gal. 3:6; Jam. 2:23). “And he believed the LORD, and he counted it to him as righteousness” (Gen. 15:6). There are significant theological implications in the salvation of Abraham. The text articulates that salvation is by God’s grace, not works. Abraham believed the LORD, but the belief exhibited here is initiated by God. Abraham was not seeking God; God was seeking Abraham (Gen. 15:1). Matthews provides a succinct explanation:

The narration describes Abram’s response as belief (trust) in the Lord. The Hebrew construction translated “believed” (heʾĕmin + bĕ prep.) means to place trust in someone with confidence (e.g., Exod 19:9; 1 Sam 27:12). The general idea is reliance, and the orientation of the person’s trust is the future. The LXX renders the Hebrew by episteusen, “[Abram] believed.” There is no exact equivalent in the Hebrew for Greek’s pistis (“faith”) and pisteuō (“believe”), but this verbal form (hiphil) of the word ʾāman comes closest. Here Abram’s trust is placed in the Lord (bĕyhwh), whom he believes will carry out his promise (cp. Exod 14:31; Jonah 3:5). The text emphasizes that Abram entrusted his future to what God would do for him as opposed to what he could do for himself to obtain the promises.^[7]

            Abraham’s faith was predicated upon God’s intervention, not his acting upon God’s work, as many confuse the roles of faith and works. R.C. Sproul adds, “When Abraham believed the promise of God, God counted him righteous, so Paul is arguing that works did not justify Abraham, nor was he justified by circumcision.”[8] Whether Old or New Testament, the gospel message must be consistent with the root cause being faith. Sons of Adam have no ability within themselves to reach up to God for salvation, and God must always do the reaching first.

Isaiah’s Gospel

“The people who walked in darkness have seen a great light; those who dwelt in a land of deep darkness, on them has light shone” (Is. 9:2).

To whom does the gospel message extend? Is it only for the Jew or for the Gentile as well? God promised redemption for His people, but in defining His people was, the gospel limited to only Jews. Isaiah seems to clear this up, and being a comprehensive prophecy of the gospel message, the prophet explains that this message will come to all nations. The Gospel of Matthew explains that this fulfills Isaiah’s prophecy of Jesus residing in the region of Galilee (Matt. 4:14-16). The message of Isaiah is replete with references to the nations of the world: “He says: ‘It is too light a thing that you should be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob and to bring back the preserved of Israel; I will make you as a light for the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth’” (Is. 49:6). When confronted with the truth of the world’s salvation (John 3:16), Nicodemus should have hardly been shocked. How did this esteemed teacher of the law miss something so obviously spelled out in Isaiah? John Calvin drives home the point:

He now adds, that this labour will be efficacious, not only among the people of Israel, but likewise among the Gentiles; and so it actually happened. Moreover, when the preaching of the Gospel produced hardly any good effect on the Jews, and when Christ was obstinately rejected by them, the Gentiles were substituted in their room. And thus Christ was “appointed to be a light of the Gentiles, and his salvation was manifested to the very ends of the earth” (Acts 13:47).^[9]

            The gospel message is a thread that runs through the entirety of Isaiah, just as it does through the entirety of the Old Testament, and from the appointing of the prophet, there is an immediate theme of conviction, repentance, and atonement, all necessary elements to the gospel call (Is. 6:4-7). Immediately the prophet volunteers to the heavenly call and receives the instruction that the people will not listen, a common New Testament reference (Cited Matt. 13:14, 15; Acts 28:26, 27; [Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; Rom. 11:8]. While Isaiah is abounding with the gospel message, the Servant Songs provide a glorious view of God’s message of salvation to man.

            It would be challenging to pick just one song in this incredible series. J. Nicholas Reid describes it like this:

So it is with the Servant Songs of Isaiah. These passages—Isaiah 42:1–9; 49:1–7; 50:4–9; and 52:13–53:12—make reference to the Servant of the Lord, and each could, like a single mountain, command attention that extends well beyond the treatment given here. In fact, one might feel the temptation to dwell only with one song without reference to the others. Another temptation might be to collapse each passage into the other, rushing from the victory of 42:1–9 to the suffering of 52:13–53:12.[10]

            Can one passage possibly due justice to God’s eternal plan to reveal His Son to the nations in all His glory? While the songs bring amazement, Isaiah 52:13-53:12 has captured the imagination of many throughout history. It culminates in that epic statement, “But he was pierced for our transgressions; he was crushed for our iniquities; upon him was the chastisement that brought us peace, and with his wounds we are healed” (Is. 53:5). This prophecy describes the brutal death the Servant would suffer, but it also proclaims the gospel. Christ suffered that His people might have peace with God. He bore the sin reserved for man. The innocent man dies for the guilty. Penal, substitutionary atonement perfectly defined.

            Isaiah’s gospel is clear. It is evident and apparent that God declared the good news through this point in redemptive history, and as it unfolds, He continues to show the same message through the minor prophets.

Jonah’s Gospel

 “Now the word of the Lord came to Jonah the son of Amittai, saying, ‘Arise, go to Nineveh, that great city, and call out against it, for their evil has come up before me’” (Jon 1:1-2).

Jonah is a prophet of God that appears to be in a crisis of faith. Jonah’s mission is to go to Ninevah, but he rebels, as the story quickly reveals. Can a gospel message be found in a rebellious man called to proclaim the good news to a wicked nation? The evidence is readily available that Jonah wanted nothing to do with God’s commands, and while he ultimately completes his mission, the gospel is intended for Jonah as much as for the Ninevites.

Bryan Estelle, in his book Salvation through Judgment and Mercy: The Gospel According to Jonah, writes,

In short, it seems that the author of Jonah has God intending the fish to rescue Jonah. The fish is not a means of punishment but of snatching from drowning. Jonah is saved in spite of his recalcitrance, and thus he experiences the pity and mercy of God. Hence the climactic exultation “Salvation comes from the Lord” (2:9) is a fitting conclusion to the psalm. ^[11]

Estelle makes an excellent point. God mercifully provides a fish to save Jonah from certain death, and this shows He is a God that rescues sinners, those hardened against His commands. Estelle, quoting Jacque Ellul, draws a comparison between Jonah and the scapegoat[12]:

What counts is that this story is in reality the precise intimation of an infinitely vaster story and one which concerns us directly. What Jonah could not do, but his attitude announces, is done by Jesus Christ. He it is who accepts total condemnation.… It is solely because of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ that the sacrifice of Jonah avails and saves. It is solely because Jesus Christ has accepted malediction that Jonah’s acceptance has something to say both to the sailors and to us.^[13]

            The comparison between Jonah and Christ is applicable since Jesus Himself drew the parallel between Jonah’s time in the fish to Christ’s time in the grave (Matt. 12:40). Jonah is a type of Christ and falls short of the antitype, Christ. Jonah’s gospel message shows the tender mercies of a loving God that saves despite human failures and human rebellion. Jonah is a prophet in crisis, going through a crisis of faith, but Jonah’s story is not about Jonah and how he overcomes his problems and saves the day. The gospel of Jonah shows how God condescends to save the unworthy: “Salvation belongs to the LORD!” (Jon. 2:9). Matthew Henry summarizes the gospel succinctly: “Jonah’s experience shall encourage others, in all ages, to trust in God as the God of their salvation; all that read this story shall say with assurance, say with admiration, that salvation is of the Lord, and is sure to all that belongs to him.”^[14] The gospel message may be veiled in the Old Testament through types, shadows, and illusions, but in Jonah, the gospel stands out as a bright light in a dim room.

Conclusion

When Jesus declared the entirety of the Scriptures spoke of himself (Luke 24:27), he declared the gospel message from beginning to end. The Old Testament Scriptures provide shadows and types and, most importantly, clear examples of the gospel message. The gospel message permeates throughout the Old Testament. The Lord Jesus Christ declared that this message begins with Moses and runs consistently through Malachi.

The examples listed above are only a few compared to God’s provision. What of the redemption of Ruth by Boaz showing him as a kinsman-redeemer, Rahab’s deliverance and her inclusion in the lineage of the Messiah, or the love shown by Hosea to Gomer. The reader of the Old Testament Scriptures need not look far to find countless examples and far too numerous to articulate in such a limited space.

God has not left the world without directions. These directions lead to the cross of Christ, whether in the Old or the New Testaments. The cross and the gospel are the central themes of God’s design to bring glory to Himself. God has declared the answer, which is found in the work and person of Jesus Christ. It is the critical work of the exegete of God’s word to root out these gospel jewels for the edification and benefit of the hearer, to proclaim with joy that salvation is of the Lord. The Old Testament concludes with a gospel promise, just as it began with one in Genesis 3: “Behold, I send my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me. And the Lord whom you seek will suddenly come to his temple; and the messenger of the covenant in whom you delight, behold, he is coming, says the Lord of hosts” (Mal. 3:1).

 

Bibliography

Barry, John D., et al., eds., “Protevangelium,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016.

Calvin, John and William Pringle, trans., Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, vol. 4., Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2010.

Ellul, Jacque, The Judgment of Jonah, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971, quoted in Bryan D. Estelle, Salvation through Judgment and Mercy: The Gospel according to Jonah, ed. Tremper Longman III and J. Alan Groves, The Gospel according to the Old Testament (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2005.

Estelle, Bryan D., Salvation through Judgment and Mercy: The Gospel according to Jonah, ed. Tremper Longman III and J. Alan Groves, The Gospel according to the Old Testament Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2005.

Gonzales, Robert R. Jr., Where Sin Abounds: The Spread of Sin and the Curse in the Book of Genesis with Special Focus on the Patriarchal Narratives, Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2009.

Henry, Matthew. Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Whole Bible: Complete and Unabridged in One Volume Peabody: Hendrickson, 1994.

Mathews, K.A., Genesis 11:27–50:26, vol. 1B, The New American Commentary, Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005.

Sproul, R.C., Romans: An Expositional Commentary, Sanford, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2019.

Spurgeon, C.H., CBS Spurgeon Study Bible, Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2017.

Tabletalk, “The Servant Songs of Isaiah,” accessed May 16, 2022, https://tabletalkmagazine.com/article/2019/10/the-servant-songs-of-isaiah/

The Holy Bible: English Standard Version. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Bibles, 2016.

Whitefield, George, Selected Sermons of George Whitefield, Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1999.

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[1] All Scripture citation in this work are taken from The Holy Bible: English Standard Version (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Bibles, 2016) unless otherwise noted.

[2] C.H. Spurgeon, CBS Spurgeon Study Bible (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2017), 5.

[3] George Whitefield, Selected Sermons of George Whitefield (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1999).

[4] John D. Barry et al., eds., “Protevangelium,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

^[5] K. A. Mathews, Genesis 1-11:26, vol. 1A, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1996), 240.

[6] Robert R. Gonzales Jr., Where Sin Abounds: The Spread of Sin and the Curse in the Book of Genesis with Special Focus on the Patriarchal Narratives (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2009), 95.

^[7] Mathews, “Genesis,” 166.

[8] R.C. Sproul, Romans: An Expositional Commentary (Sanford, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2019), 104.

^[9] John Calvin and William Pringle, Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, vol. 4 (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2010), 17.

[10] Tabletalk, “The Servant Songs of Isaiah” accessed May 16, 2022, https://tabletalkmagazine.com/article/2019/10/the-servant-songs-of-isaiah/

^[11] Bryan D. Estelle, Salvation through Judgment and Mercy: The Gospel according to Jonah, ed. Tremper Longman III and J. Alan Groves, The Gospel according to the Old Testament (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2005), 66.

[12] The scapegoat is a name given to one of two goats. The scapegoat is sent into the wilderness by Aaron as a sin offering. See Lev 16:8–22.

^[13] Jacque Ellul, The Judgment of Jonah, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 36–37, quoted in Bryan D. Estelle, Salvation through Judgment and Mercy: The Gospel according to Jonah, ed. Tremper Longman III and J. Alan Groves, The Gospel according to the Old Testament (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2005), 59–60.

^[14] Matthew Henry, Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Whole Bible: Complete and Unabridged in One Volume (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1994), 1527.